Policies and processes for human papillomavirus vaccination in Latin America and the Caribbean.

OBJECTIVES: Three highly effective vaccines are available to prevent human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, and they have been introduced in many countries around the world. This article describes advances and challenges in introducing HPV vaccines in the Expanded Program of Immunization (EPI) of countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). METHODS: We reviewed national and regional sources of information to identify LAC countries with and without universal HPV vaccination, along with the year of introduction, type of HPV vaccine, vaccination scheme, age groups targeted, and coverage level reached. Incidence rates of cervical cancer were compared across countries with and without an HPV vaccination program, in order to identify inequities in access to HPV vaccines. RESULTS: So far, 10 LAC countries have supplied data on their vaccination policies and vaccination coverage rates to the Pan America Health Organization. The majority of those 10 started their vaccination programs using quadrivalent vaccine. Only Chile, Ecuador, and Mexico started their programs using a two-dose scheme. However, by the end of 2016, most of the other countries had switched from a three-dose to a two-dose scheme. Different age groups are targeted in the various programs. Some countries vaccinate one-year birth cohorts, while others vaccinate multiple-year birth cohorts. By the end of 2014, coverage with at least two doses ranged from a low of 2% to a high of 86%. With the exception of Venezuela, the LAC countries with the largest populations introduced universal HPV vaccination between 2010 and 2014. Despite the progress that has occurred in some LAC countries, there are still 10 LAC nations with cervical cancer rates above the LAC average (21.2 cases per 100 000) that have not introduced an HPV vaccine in their EPI. CONCLUSIONS: With several key adjustments, HPV vaccination programs across Latin America and the Caribbean could be substantially strengthened. Ongoing monitoring of HPV infection outcomes is needed in order to assess the impact of different vaccination policies.

Policies and processes for human papillomavirus vaccination in Latin America and the Caribbean / Políticas y procesos relacionados con la vacunación contra el virus del papiloma humano en América Latina y el Caribe / Políticas e processos para vacinação para papilomavírus humano na América Latina e Caribe

Objectives Three highly effective vaccines are available to prevent human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, and they have been introduced in many countries around the world. This article describes advances and challenges in introducing HPV vaccines in the Expanded Program of Immunization (EPI) of countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). Methods We reviewed national and regional sources of information to identify LAC countries with and without universal HPV vaccination, along with the year of introduction, type of HPV vaccine, vaccination scheme, age groups targeted, and coverage level reached. Incidence rates of cervical cancer were compared across countries with and without an HPV vaccination program, in order to identify inequities in access to HPV vaccines. Results So far, 10 LAC countries have supplied data on their vaccination policies and vaccination coverage rates to the Pan America Health Organization. The majority of those 10 started their vaccination programs using quadrivalent vaccine. Only Chile, Ecuador, and Mexico started their programs using a two-dose scheme. However, by the end of 2016, most of the other countries had switched from a three-dose to a two-dose scheme. Different age groups are targeted in the various programs. Some countries vaccinate one-year birth cohorts, while others vaccinate multiple-year birth cohorts. By the end of 2014, coverage with at least two doses ranged from a low of 2% to a high of 86%. With the exception of Venezuela, the LAC countries with the largest populations introduced universal HPV vaccination between 2010 and 2014. Despite the progress that has occurred in some LAC countries, there are still 10 LAC nations with cervical cancer rates above the LAC average (21.2 cases per 100 000) that have not introduced an HPV vaccine in their EPI. Conclusions With several key adjustments, HPV vaccination programs across Latin America and the Caribbean could be substantially strengthened. Ongoing monitoring of HPV infection outcomes is needed in order to assess the impact of different vaccination policies.

RESUMEN Objetivos Existen tres vacunas de gran eficacia para prevenir la infección por el virus del papiloma humano (VPH) que se han introducido en muchos países en todo el mundo. En el presente artículo se describen los progresos alcanzados y las dificultades encontradas con la introducción de las vacunas contra el VPH en el Programa Ampliado de Inmunización de los países de América Latina y el Caribe. Métodos Se examinaron las fuentes de información nacionales y regionales con el fin de definir los países de América Latina y el Caribe que cuentan con la vacunación universal contra el VPH o que carecen de ella, además del año de introducción, el tipo de vacuna utilizada, el calendario de vacunación, los grupos de edad destinatarios y el grado de cobertura alcanzado. Se compararon las tasas de incidencia del cáncer cervicouterino entre los países que poseen un programa de vacunación contra el VPH y los países que no lo tienen, con el propósito de detectar las inequidades en el acceso a estas vacunas. Resultados Hasta el momento, diez países de América Latina y el Caribe han comunicado a la Organización Panamericana de la Salud los datos sobre sus políticas de vacunación y las tasas de cobertura. La mayoría de estos países comenzó sus programas de vacunación utilizando la vacuna tetravalente. Solo Chile, Ecuador y México iniciaron su programa con la aplicación de un esquema de dos dosis. Sin embargo, a fines del 2016 la mayoría de los demás países había pasado de un calendario de tres dosis a una pauta de dos dosis. Los programas se dirigen a diferentes grupos de edad. Algunos países vacunan cohortes de nacimiento de un año y otros vacunan cohortes de nacimiento de varios años. A fines del 2014, la cobertura con al menos dos dosis oscilaba entre un 2% y un 86%. Con la excepción de Venezuela, los países de América Latina y el Caribe con poblaciones más grandes introdujeron la vacunación universal contra el VPH del 2010 al 2014. Pese a los progresos alcanzados en algunos países existen todavía diez naciones en América Latina y el Caribe, cuyas tasas de cáncer cervicouterino son superiores al promedio de la Región (21,2 casos por 100 000 habitantes), que no han integrado la vacuna contra el VPH en su Programa Ampliado de Inmunización. Conclusiones Será necesario adoptar varias modificaciones esenciales con miras a fortalecer de manera sólida los programas de vacunación contra el VPH en América Latina y el Caribe. Es preciso llevar a cabo un seguimiento continuo de los resultados en materia de infección por el VPH que permita evaluar la repercusión de las diferentes políticas de vacunación.

RESUMO Objetivos Existem três vacinas bastante eficazes para prevenir a infecção pelo papilomavírus humano (HPV) que foram introduzidas em diversos países em todo o mundo. Este artigo descreve os avanços e os desafios para introduzir as vacinas contra HPV no Programa Ampliado de Imunização (PAI) dos países na América Latina e Caribe. Métodos Foram pesquisadas fontes de informação nacionais e regionais para identificar os países da América Latina e Caribe com e sem um programa de vacinação universal para HPV, assim como ano de introdução da vacina, tipo de vacina usada, esquema de vacinação, faixas etárias cobertas e nível de cobertura alcançado. Foram comparadas as taxas de incidência do câncer do colo uterino entre os países com e sem programa de vacinação a fim de identificar desigualdades de acesso à vacina contra HPV. Resultados Até o presente, 10 países da América Latina e Caribe forneceram dados sobre suas políticas de vacinação e taxas de cobertura de vacinação à Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde. A maioria iniciou introduzindo no programa de vacinação a vacina quadrivalente. Somente o Chile, Equador e México começaram seus programas com um esquema de duas doses. Porém, ao final de 2016, grande parte dos demais países havia migrado de um esquema de três para duas doses. As faixas etárias cobertas variam nos diversos programas: alguns países vacinam coortes de crianças com um ano de idade, outros vacinam coortes de crianças com idades variadas. Ao final de 2014, a cobertura com a aplicação de pelo menos duas doses da vacina variou de um nível bem baixo de 2% a um nível elevado de 86%. À exceção da Venezuela, os países mais populosos da América Latina e Caribe introduziram a vacinação universal para HPV entre 2010 e 2014. Apesar do progresso verificado, 10 nações onde foram registradas taxas de incidência de câncer do colo uterino acima da média da região (21,2 casos por 100.000 habitantes) ainda não introduziram a vacina contra HPV no próprio PAI. Conclusões Se forem tomadas várias medidas importantes, é possível reforçar consideravelmente os programas de vacinação para HPV na América Latina e Caribe. O monitoramento contínuo dos resultados se faz necessário para avaliar o impacto das políticas de vacinação.

Medical abortion and manual vacuum aspiration for legal abortion protect women's health and reduce costs to the health system: findings from Colombia.

The majority of abortions in Colombia continue to take place outside the formal health system under a range of conditions, with the majority of women obtaining misoprostol from a thriving black market for the drug and self-administering the medication. We conducted a cost analysis to compare the costs to the health system of three approaches to the provision of abortion care in Colombia: post-abortion care for complications of unsafe abortions, and for legal abortions in a health facility, misoprostol-only medical abortion and vacuum aspiration abortion. Hospital billing records from three institutions, two large maternity hospitals and one specialist reproductive health clinic, were analysed for procedure and complication rates, and costs by diagnosis. The majority of visits (94%) were to the two hospitals for post-abortion care; the other 6% were for legal abortions. Only one minor complication was found among the women having legal abortions, a complication rate of less than 1%. Among the women presenting for post-abortion care, 5% had complications during their treatment, mainly from infection or haemorrhage. Legal abortions were associated not only with far fewer complications for women, but also lower costs for the health system than for post-abortion care. We calculated based on our findings that for every 1,000 women receiving post-abortion care instead of a legal abortion within the health system, 16 women experienced avoidable complications, and the health system spent US $48,000 managing them. Increasing women's access to safe abortion care would not only reduce complications for women, but would also be a cost-saving strategy for the health system.

Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.

BACKGROUND: In 2010, overweight and obesity were estimated to cause 3·4 million deaths, 3·9% of years of life lost, and 3·8% of disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) worldwide. The rise in obesity has led to widespread calls for regular monitoring of changes in overweight and obesity prevalence in all populations. Comparable, up-to-date information about levels and trends is essential to quantify population health effects and to prompt decision makers to prioritise action. We estimate the global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013. METHODS: We systematically identified surveys, reports, and published studies (n=1769) that included data for height and weight, both through physical measurements and self-reports. We used mixed effects linear regression to correct for bias in self-reports. We obtained data for prevalence of obesity and overweight by age, sex, country, and year (n=19,244) with a spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression model to estimate prevalence with 95% uncertainty intervals (UIs). FINDINGS: Worldwide, the proportion of adults with a body-mass index (BMI) of 25 kg/m(2) or greater increased between 1980 and 2013 from 28·8% (95% UI 28·4-29·3) to 36·9% (36·3-37·4) in men, and from 29·8% (29·3-30·2) to 38·0% (37·5-38·5) in women. Prevalence has increased substantially in children and adolescents in developed countries; 23·8% (22·9-24·7) of boys and 22·6% (21·7-23·6) of girls were overweight or obese in 2013. The prevalence of overweight and obesity has also increased in children and adolescents in developing countries, from 8·1% (7·7-8·6) to 12·9% (12·3-13·5) in 2013 for boys and from 8·4% (8·1-8·8) to 13·4% (13·0-13·9) in girls. In adults, estimated prevalence of obesity exceeded 50% in men in Tonga and in women in Kuwait, Kiribati, Federated States of Micronesia, Libya, Qatar, Tonga, and Samoa. Since 2006, the increase in adult obesity in developed countries has slowed down. INTERPRETATION: Because of the established health risks and substantial increases in prevalence, obesity has become a major global health challenge. Not only is obesity increasing, but no national success stories have been reported in the past 33 years. Urgent global action and leadership is needed to help countries to more effectively intervene. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

Cost effectiveness of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in populations of high risk in Colombia / Costo efectividad de la vacuna conjugada heptavalente de neumococo en poblaciones de alto riesgo en Colombia: el caso de la vacunación en niños de bajo peso al nacer

Objective: To estimate the economic impact of the introduction of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV-7) in high risk populations of Colombia. Methods: A full economic evaluation was done regarding potential introduction of PCV-7. A cost-effectiveness study from the perspective of the third payer was done using a Decision Model. The model considered two alternatives: with and without vaccination. As measurement of results the avoided events were taken [cases, hospitalizations, deaths and Life-Years Saved (LYS)]. In addition the net costs and the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) were evaluated. Results: In a cohort of 70 thousand children of under 2 years old in situation of high risk, can generate 532 deaths that would produce a little more than 21 thousand Years of Life Lost (YLL) with costs between 7.7 and 13.3 million dollars. If we vaccinate this same cohort the deaths can be reduced to 355, and the costs of burden of disease would be between 5.7 and 10 million dollars. It is estimated a reduction of 25% of the costs of burden of disease and of 33% of the deaths. In addition the ICER by YLS would be between 590 and 762 dollars. Conclusion: The introduction of the Heptavalent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine in populations of high risk is highly cost effective in Colombia.

Objetivo: Evaluar económicamente la introducción de la vacuna heptavalente de neumococo en poblaciones de alto riesgo en Colombia. Métodos: Se realizó un análisis de costo-efectividad desde la perspectiva del tercer pagador utilizando un modelo de decisiones que consideró dos alternativas: con y sin programa de vacunación. Como medida de resultados se tomaron los eventos evitados [casos, hospitalizaciones, muertes y años de vida salvados (AVS)]. Además, se valoraron los costos netos y la razón de costo-efectividad incremental (RCEI). Resultados: En una cohorte de 70 mil niños menores de dos años en situación de alto riesgo (bajo peso al nacer), se puede generar 532 muertes que producirían un poco más de 21 mil años de vida perdidos. Los costos de atención estarían entre 7,7 y 13,3 millones de dólares. Si vacunásemos esta misma cohorte con la vacuna conjugada heptavalente las muertes se reducirían a 355 y los costos de la carga estarían entre 5,7 y 10 millones de dólares. Es decir, una reducción cerca de 25% de los costos de la carga y 33% de las muertes. Además el CEI por AVS estaría entre 590 y 762 dólares del año 2006. Conclusiones: La introducción de la vacuna contra neumococo en poblaciones de alto riesgo (bajo peso al nacer) en Colombia es altamente costo-efectiva.

Prioridades de investigación en salud en Colombia: perspectiva de los investigadores / Health research priorities in Colombia from the researchers' point of view

Colombia tiene una escasa experiencia en identificar prioridades de investigación en salud. En el año 2004 se inició un proyecto para identificar prioridades de investigación en salud, entendiendo por tales las que resultan de un ejercicio ordenado de ponderación basado en una valoración juiciosa de problemáticas sanitarias cuya respuesta y/o solución puede lograrse en gran parte por medio de conocimientos y procesos de investigación. Como referentes del proyecto se tuvieron en cuenta algunos de los métodos de priorización utilizados y recomendados en el ámbito internacional, entre ellos la matriz combinada del Global Forum for Health Resarch. Se pusieron en práctica dos trayectos metodológicos principales: por una parte, diseño y aplicación de un método para ponderar u ordenar, de manera cualitativa y cuantitativa, las problemáticas de investigación en salud; por otra parte, construcción de consensos con investigadores y representantes de comunidades científicas. Para identificar las problemáticas de salud predominantes se realizaron dos reuniones nacionales, dos reuniones regionales y un foro virtual. Una vez identificadas las problemáticas de salud predominantes, con su respectiva estimación de carga de enfermedad, estas se valoraron por políticos y decisores y se calificaron por investigadores de ciencias básicas, ciencias clínicas y salud pública, en términos del aporte del conocimiento requerido para afrontar, controlar o resolver tales problemáticas. Se obtuvieron unas prioridades de investigación en salud por áreas globales: enfermedades crónicas, enfermedades infecciosas emergentes, Tuberculosis/Lepra, infección nosocomial e infecciones de transmisión sexual/VIH/SIDA.

Colombia lacks experience in identifying health research priorities. A project for idenifying health research priorities was begun in 2004 (meaning those arising from weighting and ordering health and disease problems which could be mainly resolved by research and knowledge). The Global Forum for Health Research combined matrix method, and other methods, was used as reference for developing projects and putting two main methodological paths into practice: designing and applying a method for qualitatively and quantitatively weighting and ordering health research problems and building consensus with researchers and scientific community representatives. Two national meetings, two regional meetings and a virtual forum were held for identifying predo­minant health problems. Once the predominant health problems had been identified (with the respective estimation of disease load), then they were evaluated by politi­cians and decision-makers and rated by basic science, clinical science and public health researchers in terms of making a contribution towards knowledge for facing, controlling or resolving such problems. Some health research priorities were obtained (by areas and others being overall priorities): chronic diseases, emergent infectious diseases, tuberculosis/leprosy, nosocomial infection and sexually transmitted diseases/HIV/AIDS.

Relación costo-efectividad de la vacuna contra Haemophilus influenzae tipo b en niños menores de dos años de edad en Colombia / The cost-effectiveness of Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine for children under 2 years of age in Colombia

OBJETIVOS: Las vacunas conjugadas contra Haemophilus influenzae tipo b (Hib) son la herramienta más importante para prevenir la mayoría de las enfermedades invasoras producidas por dicho patógeno, pero debido a su costo, aún no se han introducido mundialmente de manera masiva. En el presente estudio se determinó la relación costo-efectividad de una vacuna contra Hib para prevenir la neumonía y la meningitis bacterianas en niños menores de 2 años en Colombia. MÉTODOS: Se estimaron los costos directos e indirectos de la neumonía y la meningitis hospitalaria y siguiendo las recomendaciones de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS), la relación costo-efectividad de los programas de vacunación contra Hib. Se estimaron también las razones de costos por caso evitado de enfermedad invasora por Hib y el costo por año de vida salvado en dos situaciones hipotéticas: con vacunación contra Hib (cobertura vacunal: 90 por ciento) y sin vacunación. RESULTADOS: El costo medio del tratamiento hospitalario de un caso de neumonía fue de 611,5 dólares estadounidenses (US$) (intervalo de confianza del 95 por ciento [IC95 por ciento]: 532,2 - 690,8), el costo medio del tratamiento hospitalario de un caso de meningitis fue de US$ 848,9 (IC95 por ciento: 716,8 - 981,0) y el costo por caso evitado de enfermedad invasora por Hib, de US$ 316,7 (IC95 por ciento: 294,2 - 339,2). La relación costo-efectividad en la hipótesis con vacunación fue de 2,38, frente a 3,81 en la hipótesis sin vacunación. CONCLUSION: La aplicación de un programa adecuado de vacunación contra Hib en Colombia puede prevenir cerca de 25 000 casos de enfermedad invasora por año, lo que representa un ahorro de por lo menos US$ 15 millones anuales. Además, puede evitar cerca de 700 defunciones y salvar anualmente 44 054 años de vida.

OBJECTIVE: Conjugate vaccines are the best public health tools available for preventing most invasive diseases caused by Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), but the high cost of the vaccines has so far kept them from being introduced worldwide. The objective of this study was to estimate the cost-effectiveness of introducing Hib conjugate vaccines for the prevention of meningitis and pneumonia among children under 2 years of age in Colombia. METHODS: We estimated the direct and indirect costs of managing in-hospital pneumonia and meningitis cases. In addition, following the recommendations of the World Health Organization, we assessed the cost-effectiveness of Hib vaccination programs. We also estimated the costs for preventing Hib cases, and the cost per year of life saved in two hypothetical situations: (1) with vaccination against Hib (with 90 percent coverage) and (2) without vaccination. RESULTS: The average in-hospital treatment costs were US$ 611.50 (95 percent confidence interval (95 percent CI) = US$ 532.2 to US$ 690.8) per case of pneumonia and US$ 848.9 (95 percent CI = US$ 716.8 to US$ 981.0) per case of meningitis. The average cost per Hib case prevented was US$ 316.7 (95 percent CI = US$ 294.2 to US$ 339.2). In terms of cost-effectiveness, the cost would be US$ 2.38 per year of life saved for vaccination, versus US$ 3.81 per year of life saved without vaccination. CONCLUSION: Having an adequate Hib vaccination program in Colombia could prevent around 25 000 cases of invasive disease per year, representing a cost savings of at least US$ 15 million annually. Furthermore, the program could prevent some 700 deaths per year and save 44 054 years of life per year.

[Scientific production in health science in Colombia, 1993-2003]. / Producción científica en Ciencias de la salud en Colombia, 1993-2003.

OBJECTIVE: Analysing scientific production related to health research between 1993 to 2003 in Colombia to generate information allowing a more focused investment in public health research. METHODS: Bibliometric indicators were used to analyse scientific production registered in MEDLINE and LILACS. Trends in the number of publications per year were analysed, as well as publications per research area, research centres and journal characteristics. RESULTS: Health research production in Colombia is mainly published in international journals. Most published papers are linked to basic biomedical research overshadowing other areas of health research such as clinical or public health research. Universities are the main entities producing knowledge re health and their participation has increased during the last few years. CONCLUSIONS: Colombian health research production has increased during the last few years as shown by the increased numbers of Colombian papers in MEDLINE and LILACS during the period being studied. However, this production is still lower than that of other Latin American countries having similar socioeconomic and demographic conditions.